Biogenic carbon

No. 089 Energy · biomass Biogenic carbon 1/4

The CO₂ from the vats

Every ethanol mill gives off an almost pure gas that now goes into the air

Map of São Paulo state with brick-red circles, proportional to the fermentation CO₂ estimated in each municipality in the 2025/26 harvest, over lightly tinted municipalities that have a mill. The circles cluster in the north and centre of the state, around Ribeirão Preto, and thin out to the east and south. A callout points to Guaíra, with 271 kt from three mills, the largest point in the state; another points to Piracicaba, with 115 kt, 10 km from a gas pipeline. In the panel, monthly bars show the CO₂ concentrated from May to October and almost nil from December to March, and further bars list the six largest municipalities. — Fig. 089 São Paulo State (SP) EPSG:4674 Source: ANP, Kheshgi, H. S. and Prince, R. C. (2005). Sequestration of fermentation CO₂ from ethanol production. Energy, 30, 1865–1871, EPE, IBGE

In the fermentation vat, yeast turns cane sugar into ethanol and releases CO₂ in step: 0.955 kg of gas per kg of alcohol, about 0.75 t per m³. It is almost pure CO₂, of biological origin, and today it goes into the air. In the 2025/26 harvest, São Paulo’s mills made 12.1 billion litres of ethanol; by stoichiometry, about 8.9 million tonnes of CO₂ left the vats, from 145 mills in 119 municipalities. Guaíra, with three mills, leads with about 271,000 t; Pitangueiras, Sertãozinho and Buritizal each pass 190,000. The gas follows the crushing season: 1.4 million t in August and almost nothing from December to March. As ANP publishes output only by state, each mill’s share is estimated from its authorised capacity; everything here is an estimate. First plate of the collection “Biogenic carbon”.

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At a glance

Layers

usinas_etanol point 145 SP mills with authorised capacity in the harvest: estimated ethanol and CO₂, at the municipality’s interior point
municipios polygon 645 municipalities: fermentation CO₂ (2025/26 harvest and 2024), biogas, fossil and possible e-methane

Metadata

Sources: ANP — Ethanol Producers Dynamic Panel: authorised capacity by mill and output by state and month (pb-da-etanol.zip) (2026)
ANP — Resolution No. 907/2022, Table 1 (density and alcohol content of anhydrous and hydrous ethanol) (2022)
Kheshgi, H. S. and Prince, R. C. (2005). Sequestration of fermentation CO₂ from ethanol production. Energy, 30, 1865–1871 (2005)
EPE — WebMap: existing gas pipelines, as published in the MapBiomas infrastructure database (distance to pipeline) (2022)
IBGE — Municipal Mesh 2025 (2025)
Extent: São Paulo State (SP)
CRS / Projection: SIRGAS 2000 (EPSG:4674)
EPSG:4674
Software: Node.js · d3-geo · QGIS
Method: São Paulo’s anhydrous and hydrous ethanol output in the 2025/26 harvest (ANP, by month) shared out among mills by their authorised capacity in each month, converted to mass by the density in the ANP specification and to CO₂ by the stoichiometry of alcoholic fermentation (0.955 kg of CO₂ per kg of ethanol); summed by municipality.
Version: v1.0.0
Licence: CC BY 4.0
DOI: being registered on Zenodo

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Cerejo, L. N. (2026). O CO₂ das dornas: toda usina de etanol solta um gás quase puro, que hoje vai para o ar [The CO₂ from the vats: Every ethanol mill gives off an almost pure gas that now goes into the air] (Version 1.0.0) [Data set]. Essencial. https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/089-co2-das-dornas-sp/

@dataset{cerejo2026_co2_das_dornas_sp,
  author    = {Cerejo, Lucas Nakamura},
  title     = {O CO₂ das dornas: Toda usina de etanol solta um gás quase puro, que hoje vai para o ar},
  year      = {2026},
  publisher = {Essencial},
  version   = {1.0.0},
  url       = {https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/089-co2-das-dornas-sp/},
  language  = {portuguese},
  note      = {English title: The CO₂ from the vats: Every ethanol mill gives off an almost pure gas that now goes into the air. Licence CC BY 4.0}
}

No. 090 Energy · biomass Biogenic carbon 2/4

The CO₂ in biogas

To become biomethane, biogas must shed its CO₂, almost half its volume

Choropleth map of São Paulo municipalities in six shades of brown, from cream to dark brown, by the CO₂ that upgrading the possible biogas would separate each year. The dark shades cover almost all the cane-growing interior, in the north, west and centre; the light ones lie on the coast, in the Ribeira Valley and in the Paraíba Valley. The capital shows dark among its light neighbours. A callout points to Guaíra, with 178 kt a year, the largest potential in the state; another points to São Paulo, with 72 kt, from organic waste, pruning and sewage sludge. In the panel, bars show that 82% of the CO₂ would come from cane residues and others give the CO₂ share of the biogas from each residue. — Fig. 090 São Paulo State (SP) EPSG:4674 Source: CP2B (Unicamp), NIST, IBGE

Biogas leaves the digester as methane and CO₂; the CO₂ takes up 32% to 48% of the volume, depending on the residue. To become biomethane, which can enter the gas grid, biogas goes through upgrading, which separates out this CO₂, a concentrated, biogenic gas. If all the possible biogas in São Paulo were made and upgraded, on the CP2B potential (level N4, reference scenario), about 9.1 million t of CO₂ a year would come out, almost as much as the ethanol vats release in a harvest. 82% would come from cane residues: vinasse, filter cake, bagasse and straw. Guaíra leads with 178,000 t, followed by Morro Agudo with 154,000 and Sertãozinho with 136,000; the capital reaches 72,000 t from organic waste, pruning and sewage sludge. It is a potential, not a current emission, and an estimate. Second plate of the collection “Biogenic carbon”.

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Layers

municipios polygon 645 municipalities: biogas upgrading CO₂, total and by group (cane, crops, livestock, urban), and N4 biogas (same GPKG as plate 089)

Metadata

Sources: CP2B (Unicamp) — biogas and biomethane potential by municipality, method v5.1 (level N4, reference scenario) (2026)
NIST — Chemistry WebBook (CO₂ density at 0 °C and 1 atm) (2023)
IBGE — Municipal Mesh 2025 (2025)
Extent: São Paulo State (SP)
CRS / Projection: SIRGAS 2000 (EPSG:4674)
EPSG:4674
Software: Node.js · d3-geo · QGIS
Method: For each municipality and residue, the biogas of the CP2B v5.1 potential (level N4, reference scenario) times the share of the volume that is not methane (1 − the residue’s CH₄ fraction), converted to mass at 1.977 kg of CO₂ per normal m³; summed by municipality and by residue group.
Version: v1.0.0
Licence: CC BY 4.0
DOI: being registered on Zenodo

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The map without a frame, with legend, scale, reference system and credit written on it: ready for papers, lectures and slides. In two versions: with the basemap (neighbours and sea) or only the mapped area, on white.

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Cerejo, L. N. (2026). O CO₂ do biogás: para virar biometano, o biogás solta o CO₂, quase metade do volume [The CO₂ in biogas: To become biomethane, biogas must shed its CO₂, almost half its volume] (Version 1.0.0) [Data set]. Essencial. https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/090-co2-do-biogas-sp/

@dataset{cerejo2026_co2_do_biogas_sp,
  author    = {Cerejo, Lucas Nakamura},
  title     = {O CO₂ do biogás: Para virar biometano, o biogás solta o CO₂, quase metade do volume},
  year      = {2026},
  publisher = {Essencial},
  version   = {1.0.0},
  url       = {https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/090-co2-do-biogas-sp/},
  language  = {portuguese},
  note      = {English title: The CO₂ in biogas: To become biomethane, biogas must shed its CO₂, almost half its volume. Licence CC BY 4.0}
}

No. 091 Energy · biomass Biogenic carbon 3/4

Biogenic versus fossil

In the state’s large fixed sources, half the CO₂ comes from sugarcane

Map of São Paulo with circles proportional to the 2024 CO₂ from each municipality’s large fixed sources, adding ethanol vats and the burning of natural gas, fuel oil and coke, coloured by biogenic share: from purple, almost all fossil, to dark green, almost all biogenic. The greens cover the interior, in the north and west; the purples cluster in Greater São Paulo, Cubatão, Campinas and the Paraíba Valley. Callouts point to Cubatão, with 738 kt of fossil CO₂, Guaíra, with 310 kt, all from the vats, and Piracicaba, 34% biogenic. In the panel, bars compare the vats, the possible biogas, fossil fixed sources and all the state’s fossil energy, 77 million t. — Fig. 091 São Paulo State (SP) EPSG:4674 Source: SEMIL (SP), ANP, IPCC (2006), IPCC (2005), EPE, IBGE

The gas leaving an ethanol vat is almost 100% CO₂; a combustion stack carries 3% to 15%. That is why mills are among the easiest sources to capture. In 2024, São Paulo’s vats released about 10.1 million t of biogenic CO₂. Natural gas burnt by industry, cogeneration and power plants, fuel oil and coke added up to 9.3 million t of fossil CO₂, on the SEMIL Energy Yearbook and IPCC factors. In these large fixed sources, 52% of the CO₂ comes from sugarcane. The map splits: across the cane-growing interior, 116 municipalities have more biogenic than fossil CO₂; fossil CO₂ concentrates in the capital (850,000 t), Cubatão (738,000), Santa Gertrudes, Paulínia and Jacareí. In Piracicaba the two mix: 34% is biogenic. The fossil figure here is a floor. Third plate of the collection “Biogenic carbon”.

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At a glance

Layers

municipios polygon 645 municipalities: fossil CO₂ (gas, oil, coke and all energy), vat CO₂ in 2024 and biogenic share (same GPKG as plate 089)

Metadata

Sources: SEMIL (SP) — Energy Yearbook by Municipality of São Paulo State 2025, base year 2024 (natural gas and oil product use by municipality) (2025)
ANP — Ethanol Producers Dynamic Panel (2024 output and capacity by mill) (2026)
IPCC (2006) — Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, vol. 2, ch. 1, Table 1.4 (stationary combustion CO₂ emission factors) (2006)
IPCC (2005) — Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, Table 2.1 (CO₂ concentration by source type) (2005)
EPE — Brazilian Energy Balance 2025 (net calorific values) (2025)
IBGE — Municipal Mesh 2025 (2025)
Extent: São Paulo State (SP)
CRS / Projection: SIRGAS 2000 (EPSG:4674)
EPSG:4674
Software: Node.js · d3-geo · QGIS
Method: Fossil CO₂ in 2024 by municipality: industrial, cogeneration and power-generation natural gas use and fuel oil and petroleum coke use (SEMIL Energy Yearbook), times the BEN net calorific value and the IPCC 2006 emission factor; biogenic CO₂ in 2024: ethanol fermentation estimated as in plate 089; biogenic share = biogenic ÷ (biogenic + fossil).
Version: v1.0.0
Licence: CC BY 4.0
DOI: being registered on Zenodo

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The map without a frame, with legend, scale, reference system and credit written on it: ready for papers, lectures and slides. In two versions: with the basemap (neighbours and sea) or only the mapped area, on white.

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How to cite

Cerejo, L. N. (2026). Biogênico contra fóssil: nas grandes fontes fixas do estado, metade do CO₂ vem da cana [Biogenic versus fossil: In the state’s large fixed sources, half the CO₂ comes from sugarcane] (Version 1.0.0) [Data set]. Essencial. https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/091-co2-biogenico-e-fossil-sp/

@dataset{cerejo2026_co2_biogenico_e_fossil_sp,
  author    = {Cerejo, Lucas Nakamura},
  title     = {Biogênico contra fóssil: Nas grandes fontes fixas do estado, metade do CO₂ vem da cana},
  year      = {2026},
  publisher = {Essencial},
  version   = {1.0.0},
  url       = {https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/091-co2-biogenico-e-fossil-sp/},
  language  = {portuguese},
  note      = {English title: Biogenic versus fossil: In the state’s large fixed sources, half the CO₂ comes from sugarcane. Licence CC BY 4.0}
}

No. 092 Energy · biomass Biogenic carbon 4/4

What CO₂ could become

With green hydrogen, the cane would yield almost twice the gas the state uses

Map of São Paulo with the eleven intermediate regions in five shades of grey-blue by the possible e-methane from biogenic CO₂, darkest in the north, in Ribeirão Preto and São José do Rio Preto, and almost white in São Paulo and São José dos Campos. On top, transmission pipelines in plum, along an axis from the west to Campinas and on to the capital and the Paraíba Valley, distribution networks in ochre, and brick-red circles in municipalities with over 100 kt of vat CO₂ a harvest, almost all in the north, far from the pipelines. A callout points to Guaíra, 150 km from the nearest pipeline. In the panel, the sum per tonne of CO₂ and bars of possible e-methane by region, split between vats and biogas. — Fig. 092 São Paulo State (SP) EPSG:4674 Source: ANP, CP2B (Unicamp), IRENA (2020), SEMIL (SP), EPE, IBGE

With hydrogen, biogenic CO₂ can become fuel. One tonne of CO₂ plus 183 kg of H₂ gives 365 kg of methane, about 509 m³; with 137 kg of H₂, it gives 728 kg of methanol. Adding the vat CO₂ of the 2025/26 harvest (8.9 million t) to what upgrading the possible biogas would separate (9.1 million), São Paulo would have 18 million t a year: enough for 25 million m³ of e-methane a day, almost twice the natural gas the state used in 2024, or for 13 million t of methanol. But the sum calls for 3.3 million t of green hydrogen and 182 TWh of electricity, 1.2 times the state’s use. The Ribeirão Preto region holds 26% of the total, and 60% of the vat CO₂ lies over 50 km from a gas pipeline. It is a theoretical calculation and an estimate. Last plate of the collection “Biogenic carbon”.

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At a glance

Layers

regioes_carbono polygon 11 intermediate regions: biogenic CO₂, H₂, electricity, possible e-methane and e-methanol, and the largest source
usinas_etanol point 145 ethanol mills, with estimated CO₂ (plate 089)
gasodutos_transporte line Existing transmission pipelines (same database as plate 057)
gasodutos_distribuicao line Piped gas distribution networks

Metadata

Sources: ANP — Ethanol Producers Dynamic Panel (output and capacity by mill) (2026)
CP2B (Unicamp) — biogas and biomethane potential by municipality, method v5.1 (level N4, reference scenario) (2026)
IRENA (2020) — Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction: Scaling up Electrolysers to Meet the 1.5 °C Climate Goal (electrolysis power use) (2020)
SEMIL (SP) — Energy Yearbook by Municipality of São Paulo State 2025, base year 2024 (natural gas and electricity use) (2025)
EPE — WebMap: existing transmission and distribution gas pipelines, as published in the MapBiomas infrastructure database (2022)
IBGE — Municipal Mesh 2025 and intermediate geographic regions (2025)
Extent: São Paulo State (SP)
CRS / Projection: SIRGAS 2000 (EPSG:4674)
EPSG:4674
Software: Node.js · d3-geo · QGIS
Method: Biogenic CO₂ by intermediate region (vats in the 2025/26 harvest, plate 089, plus upgrading of the possible biogas, plate 090), converted into e-methane (CO₂ + 4 H₂ → CH₄ + 2 H₂O) and e-methanol (CO₂ + 3 H₂ → CH₃OH + H₂O) at full conversion, with the hydrogen turned into electricity at 55 kWh per kg (electrolysis); distance from each municipality to the nearest gas pipeline.
Version: v1.0.0
Licence: CC BY 4.0
DOI: being registered on Zenodo

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The map without a frame, with legend, scale, reference system and credit written on it: ready for papers, lectures and slides. In two versions: with the basemap (neighbours and sea) or only the mapped area, on white.

With basemap (PNG) Without basemap (PNG) QR code (SVG)

Point a camera at it to open this page.

How to cite

Cerejo, L. N. (2026). O que o CO₂ poderia virar: com hidrogênio verde, a cana renderia quase duas vezes o gás consumido no estado [What CO₂ could become: With green hydrogen, the cane would yield almost twice the gas the state uses] (Version 1.0.0) [Data set]. Essencial. https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/092-o-que-o-co2-pode-virar-sp/

@dataset{cerejo2026_o_que_o_co2_pode_virar_sp,
  author    = {Cerejo, Lucas Nakamura},
  title     = {O que o CO₂ poderia virar: Com hidrogênio verde, a cana renderia quase duas vezes o gás consumido no estado},
  year      = {2026},
  publisher = {Essencial},
  version   = {1.0.0},
  url       = {https://aikiesan.github.io/essencial-geo/en/maps/092-o-que-o-co2-pode-virar-sp/},
  language  = {portuguese},
  note      = {English title: What CO₂ could become: With green hydrogen, the cane would yield almost twice the gas the state uses. Licence CC BY 4.0}
}

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